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TIME LIFE - The Heart of Classic Rock Collection!
A Symphony Orchestra and Chorus.
A Caribbean steel
band.
An English rock
group.
A choir singing
Christmas carols.
A sitar player
performing Indian music.
A marching band in
a parade.
Mariachi players
at an outdoor café in Mexico City.
Folk singer Bob
Gibson
Bulgarian
folk musicians
and dancers perform a dunce song Dance songs are a type of
folk music composed to accompany folk dances.
Myer Music
Bowl, an auditorium of
striking modem design, offers open-air concerts during the summer. It is
located in King's Domain, Melbourne, Australia.
Japanese music is often played on plucked
stringed instruments called kotos. Other Japanese instruments
include gongs, banjolike samisens, and shakuhachi (bamboo
flutes).
An Indonesian
gamelan orchestra consists
of drums, gongs, and xylophones. Camelan music has a kind of harmony because
the instruments play different melodies.
American Indian music often features singing and
dancing accompanied by rattles. American Indians almost always perform music as
part of an activity, such as a religious ceremony.
A music hall
singer entertained
audiences with comical or sentimental songs, adding jokes and dance steps. In
early music halls, drinks were served during performances.
Myer Music
Bowl, an auditorium of
striking modem design, offers open-air concerts during the summer. It is
located in King's Domain, Melbourne,
Australia.
The instruments below are grouped in four major classes:
(1) stringed instruments, (2) wind
instruments, (3) percussion instruments, and (4) keyboard instruments. The
fifth major class of musical instruments - electronic
instruments - is not represented in these illustrations. Electronic instruments include electric guitars, electric pianos,
electronic organs, and synthesizers
Musical instruments
Wind Instruments (Woodwinds): Oboe, English horn, Clorinet, Bass Clorinet, Flute,
Piccolo, Bassoon, Soprano Saxophone, Tenor Saxophone, Baritone Saxophone.
Stringed Instrument: Violin, Viola, Mondolin, Guitar, Cello, Bass,
Harp, Lute.
Brasses: Trumpet, Bugle, Trombone, French Horn,
Sousaphone, Baritone Horn, Flugelhorn
Percussion Instrument: Kettledrum, Snare Drum, Bass Drum, Bongo Drums,
Vibraphone, Triangle, Triangle, Cymbals, Sleigh Bells, Chimes, Gong.
Keyboard Instrument: Piano, Harpsichord, Pipe Organ.
Some types of scales
The C
major scale has a semitone between its
third and fourth notes and between its seventh and eighth notes. You hear it
when you play the white keys from C to C on the piano.
The natural minor scale follows a pattern of one whole tone, one semitone, two whole
tones, one semitone, and two whole tones. This scale is often used in folk
music.
The harmonic minor scale has three semitones between its sixth and seventh notes. This
wide leap provides a bridge to the tonic, or main note at the octave.
The chromatic scale consists entirely of semitones and has 12 notes to an octave. You hear
this scale when you play all the white and black keys from C to C on the piano.
Triadic chords
Combinations of notes are
called chords. A triad is a chord made up of three notes, each a third apart, such as C, E,
and G in a major scale. The most important triads in a musical composition are
the tonic, dominant, and subdominant.
Cadences
A series of chords that
ends a piece of music is called the cadence. Most
classical music ends with an authentic
cadence. Many hymns use a plagal cadence.
Examples appear below.
Pitch
Composers use a staff to indicate the pitch of notes. A def sign determines the name of
each line and space of the staff. The main kinds of clefs are shown below.
The bass clef, also called the F clef, locates the F below middle C on the second line from the top
of the staff. This clef is used in music that has low notes.
The C clef (alto) fixes middle C on the third line of the staff. It is chiefly
used in music for the viola.
The C clef (tenor) locates middle C on the second line from the top of the staff.
It is used for cello and bassoon music.
The great staff combines the
treble and bass clefs
Time values: The shape of a note or rest indicates how long it
lasts. The notes and rests shown are semibreve, minim, crochet; quaver,
semiquaver, demisemiquaver, and hemide-misemiquaver. Staff signatures - The staff signature, or key
signature, tells what key the music is written in. If the music has no
flats or sharps, it may be in the key of C major or its relative minor, A
minor. Each major key has a relative minor, and each minor key has a relative
major
Time signatures: The time signature is a fraction that tells the number of beats in each bar and what kind
of note receives one beat. For example, a signature of J has four beats, and a
time signature of J has three. Both have a crotchet as the beat unit.
Expression: Composers
use words and symbols to show the kind of expression they want in music. For
example, a curved line over notes indicates that the notes should be played legato (smoothly). A dot over
notes means they should be played staccato (sharply separated)
Cadences - A series of chords that ends a
piece of music is called the cadence. Most classical music
ends with anauthentic cadence. Many hymns use a plagal
cadence.
Pitch - Composers use a staff to
indicate the pitch of notes. A def
sor determines the name of each line and space of the
staff. The main kinds of clefs …
Time values
The shape of a note or rest indicates
how long it lasts. The notes and rests shown are semibreve, minim, crochet;
quaver, semiquaver, demisemiquaver, and hemide-misemiquaver.
Staff signatures - The staff
signature, or key signature, tells what key the music
is written in. If the music has no flats or sharps, it may be in the key of C
major or its relative minor, A minor. Each major key has a
relative minor, and each minor key has a relative major
Time signatures - The time signature is a
fraction that tells the number of beats in each bar and what kind of note
receives one beat. For example, a signature of J has four beats, and a time
signature of J has three. Both have a crotchet as the beat unit.
Expression - Composers use words and symbols to show the
kind of expression they want in music. For example, a curved line over notes
indicates that the notes should be played legato (smoothly A
dot over notes means they should be played staccato (sharply
separated).
(1)vocal or instrumental sounds (or
both) combined in such a way as to produce beauty of form, harmony, and
expression of emotion.
"couples were dancing to the
music"
synonyms:
|
notes, strains, tones, chords, sound; More
|
(2)the written or printed signs
representing vocal or instrumental sound.
"Tony learned to read
music"
A variety of musical performances
- suggests some of the many
forms of music. But whatever the form, all music is sound
arranged for artistic effect.
Benefits
of Music
Music
Music is sound arranged into pleasing or interesting
patterns. It forms an important part of many cultural and social activities.
People use music to
express feelings and ideas. Music also serves to entertain and relax.
Like drama and dance, music is a
performing art. It differs from such arts as painting and poetry, in which
artists create works and then display or publish them. Musical composers need
musicians to interpret and perform their works, just as playwrights need actors
to perform their plays. Thus, musical performances are partnerships between
composers and performers.
Music also plays a major role in
other arts. Opera combines singing and orchestral music with drama. Ballet and
other forms of dancing need music to help the dancers with their steps and
evoke an atmosphere. Film and TV dramas use music to help set the mood and emphasize
the action. Also, composers have set many poems to music.
Music is one of the oldest arts.
People probably a Caribbean steel band started to sing as soon as language
developed. Hunting tools struck together may have been the first musical instruments.
By about 10,000 B.C., people had discovered how to make flutes out of hollow
bones. Many ancient peoples, including the Egyptians, Chinese, and Babylonians,
and the peoples of India, used music in court and religious ceremonies. The
first written music dates from about 2500 B.C.
Today, music takes many forms around
the world. The music of people in Europe and the Americas is known as Western
music. There are two chief kinds of Western music, classical and
popular. Classical music includes symphonies, operas, and ballets.
Popular music includes country music, folk music, jazz, and rock music. The cultures of Africa and Asia have
developed their own types of classical and popular music.
This article deals with the importance of music, musical instruments, the elements of music,
and the system used for writing down music.
It also includes information on the various types of Western and non-Western
music.
The importance of music
Music plays an important part in all
cultures. People use music (1) in ceremonies, (2) in work, and (3) in personal and social
activities.
In ceremonies. Nearly
all peoples use music in their religious services. One kind of religious music
seeks to create a state of mystery and awe. For example, some cultures have
special musical instruments played only by priests on important occasions, such
as harvest ceremonies and the burials of chiefs. Similarly, much Western
church music attempts to create a feeling of distance from the daily world.
Other religious music, such as hymn-singing, helps produce a sense of
participation among worshippers.
Many nonreligious ceremonies and
spectacles also use music. They include sports events, graduation ceremonies,
circuses, parades, and the crowning of kings and queens.
In work. Before
machines became important, people had to do much difficult or boring work by
hand. For example, labourers sang songs to help make their work seem easier.
Crews aboard sailing ships sang shanties songs with a strong,
regular beat. The sailors pulled or lifted heavy loads in time to the beat.
Today, the wide use of machines has made the singing of work songs rare in
industrialized societies. However, many offices and factories provide
background music for their workers.
In personal and social activities. Many
people perform music for their own satisfaction. Singing in a choir or playing
a musical instrument in a band can be very enjoyable. Music provides people
with a way to express their feelings. A group of happy campers may sing
cheerful songs as they sit around a campfire. A sad person may play a mournful
tune on a guitar.
Many famous rulers have used music to
help them relax. According to the Bible, David played the harp to help King
Saul take his mind off the problems of ruling Israel. Kings Richard I and Henry
VIII of England composed music. Other leaders have performed music. For example,
the former British Prime Minister, Edward Heath is a spare-time organist and
conductor. Former United States presidents Harry S. Truman and Richard M. Nixon
played the piano.
People use music at a variety of
social occasions. At parties and dinners, music is often played for dancing or
simply for listening to. In some countries, it is customary for a young man to
show that a young woman is special to him by serenading her or by sending
musicians to play and sing for her.
Musical instruments
A musical sound, or note, is
produced when air vibrates a certain number of times each second. These vibrations
are called sound waves. Sound waves must be contained in some
way so that the performer can control the pitch, loudness, duration, and
quality of the note. Whatever contains the sound waves must also provide resonance
- that is, it must amplify and prolong the sound so the note can be
heard.
The vocal cords produce musical
sounds in the human voice. These two small folds of tissue vibrate and create
sound waves when air passes them from the lungs. The throat and the cavities in
the head provide the resonance needed for singing.
Most musical instruments have a
string, a reed (thin piece of wood or metal), or some other
device that creates sound waves when set in motion. Musical instruments can be
grouped in five major classes. These classes are (1) stringed instruments, (2)
wind instruments, (3) percussion instruments, (4) keyboard instruments, and
(5) electronic instruments.
Stringed instruments produce notes
when the player makes one or more strings vibrate. There are two basic types of
stringed instruments: (1) bowed stringed instruments and (2) plucked stringed
instruments.
Bowed stringed instruments are played by drawing a bow (a wooden rod
with horsehair stretched from end to end) back and forth across the strings.
The friction (rubbing) of the bow on the strings produces
vibrations that are amplified by the body of the instrument. Most bowed
instruments have four strings. Each string is tuned to a different pitch. To
produce other pitches, the musician shortens the strings by pressing down on
them with the fingers. This is called stopping.
The main bowed instruments, in
descending order of pitch and ascending order of size, are the violin, viola,
violoncello or cello, and string bass. These instruments form the heart of a
symphony orchestra. Violins in an orchestra are divided into first
violins and second violins.
Musical terms
Accelerando means gradually speeding
up the tempo. Accidentals are sharps, flats, and naturals not included in a key
signature.
Adagio means
slow.
Ad libitum
indicates that the musician may play a composition with great freedom.
Agitato
means played in a restless or excited manner.
Allegro means
fast and lively.
Andante means
smooth and flowing, at a moderate speed. Animato means lively or animated.
Appassionato
means with great feeling.
Bar
is a unit of musical time containing an indicated number of beats.
Cadence
is a series of chords that brings a composition or one of its sections to a
conclusion.
Cantabile
means songlike.
Chord
is a combination of notes played at the same time.
Clef
is a sign that fixes the positions of notes on the lines and spaces of the
staff.
Counterpoint
is music that consists of two or more melodies played at the same time.
Crescendo
means growing louder.
Decrescendo
means growing softer.
Diminuendo
means gradually growing softer.
Espressivo
means with expression.
Flat
is the semitone below a given tone, with the same letter name as that note. A
flat is also the sign used to show that a note should be lowered a semitone.
Forte means loud.
Fortissimo means
very loud.
Interval
is the distance between two notes. The interval consisting of the notes C and
E is called athird because E is the third note of a diatonic scale
from C to C Likewise, C and F is a fourth, C and G a fifth, C
to A a sixth, and so on.
Key is the particular scale used for a piece of music.
It is based on a certain note, called the tonic.
Largo
means extremely slow.
Ledger
line is a short line drawn above or below the staff. It is used for notes too
high or too low to appear on the staff.
Legato
means smoothly connected.
Maestoso
means majestic.
Meter
is the arrangement of beats in a piece of music. It is indicated by the time
signature, a fraction that appears at the beginning of the piece.
Mezzo
means medium. It modifies other terms, as in mezzo forte (moderately
loud).
Moderato
means playing in moderate tempo.
Modulation
is moving from one key to another key in a musical composition.
Molto
means very or much. It modifies other terms, as in motto allegro (very
lively).
Motive
is a series of notes repeated throughout a piece of music.
Natural is a note that is neither
sharp nor flat. A natural is also the sign used to cancel a preceding sharp or
flat.
Octave is an interval of eight notes.
Pianissimo means very soft.
Piano means soft.
Piu means more. It modifies other
terms, as in piupresto (faster).
Prestissimo means as fast as
possible.
Presto means extremely fast.
Rallentando, or Ritardando, means
gradually slowing the tempo.
Scale is a series of notes spanning
an octave, arranged according to pitch.
Sforzando means played with a sudden,
strong accent.
Sharp is the semitone above a given
note, with the same letter name as that note. A sharp is also the sign used to
show that a note should be raised a semitone.
Staccato means sharply separated from
one another. The notes are as short as possible.
Staff consists of five horizontal
lines and the spaces between them. Notes are written on the lines and spaces.
Tempo is the characteristic speed of
a piece of music.
Theme is the main melody of a musical
composition.
Tremolo means playing in a quivering
or trembling style. Vibrato means a slight wavering in pitch, occurring so
quickly that it sounds like a single pitch.
Vivace means played in a lively
manner or with great speed.
The first violins play higher-pitched
parts of musical compositions than the second violins.
Plucked stringed instruments are played by plucking the strings with the
fingers or a pick or plectrum. The guitar is the most common plucked stringed
instrument. It has 6 to 12 strings. The harp, another important plucked
instrument, has up to 47 strings. Other plucked stringed instruments include
the banjo, lute, lyre, mandolin, sitar, ukulele, and zither. The strings of
the violin and other bowed instruments also may be plucked to produce special
effects. This style of playing on a bowed instrument is called pizzicato.
Wind instruments are played by using
breath to vibrate air in a tube. There are two chief types: (1) woodwind
instruments and (2) brass instruments.
Woodwind instruments are grouped together because, before the
invention of the saxophone, they were all made of wood. Today, many are made of
metal or other materials. In such woodwinds as recorders, the player blows into
a mouthpiece. In some other woodwinds, such as flutes and piccolos, the player
blows across a hole in the side of the instrument. Still other woodwinds,
called reed instruments, have one or two reeds attached to the
mouthpiece. The reeds vibrate when the musician blows on them. The clarinet and
saxophone are the chief single-reed instruments. Double reed instruments
include the bassoon, English horn or cor anglais, and oboe.
The player controls the pitch of a
woodwind by placing the fingers on holes in the instrument or on keys that
cover holes. In this way, the player lengthens or shortens the column of air
that vibrates inside the instrument. The piccolo and flute have the highest
pitches of the woodwinds. The bassoon and contrabassoon have the lowest
pitches.
Brass instruments are played in a different way from that of
woodwinds. The player presses the lips against the instrument's mouthpiece so
that they vibrate like reeds when the player blows. By either tensing or
relaxing the lips, the player produces different pitches. With many brass
instruments, the player can further control the pitch with valves that lengthen
or shorten the tube in which the air column is made to vibrate.
The chief brass instruments in an orchestra
are the French horn, trumpet, trombone, and tuba have lower pitches. The
trombone has a slide instead of valves. The performer pulls the slide in and
out of the instrument to control the pitch. Other brass instruments, including
the baritone horn and sousaphone, are used in bands.
Percussion instruments are sounded by shaking them or by hitting them
with the hand, a stick, or a mallet. Drums are the most common percussion
instruments. Most Western drums do not produce a range of pitches. But kettledrums,
also called timpani, can be tuned to various pitches by
adjusting the tension of the drumheads. Glockenspiels and xylophones have a
series of metal or wooden bars that produce a range of pitches. Other
percussion instruments include castanets, cymbals, gongs, marimbas, and
tambourines.
Keyboard instruments have a series of keys connected by mechanical
means to a device that produces notes. The musician presses the keys to make
sounds. The best-known keyboard instruments are the piano, harpsichord, and
pipe organ. The keys on a piano activate small hammers that strike strings. On
a harpsichord, the keys control a mechanism that plucks strings. Pressing a
key on a pipe organ opens a pipe in which a column of air vibrates. The player
operates some pipes by pressing pedals with the feet.
Electronic instruments include those that generate sounds by electricity
and those that electronically amplify sounds produced by an instrument. The
most common electronic instrument is the electric guitar, it makes louder and
more varied notes than an ordinary guitar. Electric guitars, electric pianos,
and electronic organs are widely used in rock music. A complex electronic instrument
called a synthesizer is used to create original sounds or to
imitate the sounds of other musical instruments. Some synthesizers are
operated by computer.
The elements of music
A composer uses five basic elements
to create a piece of music. These elements are (1) notes, (2) rhythm, (3)
melody, (41 harmony, and (5) tone colour.
Notes are musical sounds of definite
pitch. Most music is based on a scale, a particular pattern of
notes arranged according to rising or falling pitch. Western musicians name the
notes of a scale by labelling them with the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. This
cycle of seven letters is repeated as the scale is continued upward. The
distance between a note and the next highest note having the same letter name
(for example, from C to C) is called an octave. There are
eight scale notes in an octave, including both the repeated notes. The note at
the upper end of an octave has exactly twice as many vibrations per second as
the note at the lower end.
The distance between one note and
another is called an interval. The adjacent notes in a scale
are separated from each other by one of two types of interval - a whole tone or
a semitone (half a whole tone). In many countries, a whole tone is known as a
whole step and a semitone is called a half step.
Most Western composers have based
their musical works on diatonic scales. A diatonic scale has
the eight notes of the octave arranged in a pattern that uses both whole tones
and semitones. There are two chief types of diatonic scales, major scales
and minor scales. The scales differ in the location of the
semitones. A major scale has a semitone between the third and fourth notes and
between the seventh and eighth notes. All the other intervals are whole tones.
The natural minor scale follows a pattern of one whole tone,
one semitone, two whole tones, one semitone, and two whole tones. Two other
minor scales, the harmonic minor and the melodic
minor, have different arrangements of whole tones and semitones. But
all minor scales have a semitone between the second and third notes.
Sometimes composers need to raise or
lower the pitch of a note in a scale by a semitone. A note raised in this way
is called sharp. A lowered note is called flat.
The notes of a diatonic scale, which
are also called degrees, vary in importance. The main note,
called the tonic, is the first degree of the scale. The tonic
serves as the tonal centre of the scale, and all other notes are related in
some way to the tonic. The tonic also gives the scale its name. For example, C
is the tonic in the C major and C minor scales.
Next to the tonic, the most important
notes of a scale are the fifth degree, called the dominant, and
the fourth degree, called the subdominant. The seventh degree
is calted the leading note because it leads to the tonic at
the octave.
A chromatic scale consists entirely of semitones. It has 12
notes to an octave, rather than 8. You can hear the chromatic scale if you play
all the white and black keys from one C to the next C on a piano. After 1850,
composers increasingly used notes from the chromatic scale to make their music
more colourful. During the 1920's, the Austrian composer Arnold Schoenberg
developed a type of music based on this scale. This music, called atonal
music or 12-tone music, has no tonal centre.
Rhythm is
the way the composer arranges notes in time. Every note has a certain duration
as well as a definite pitch. Some notes may last a short time, and others a
relatively long time. Rhythm helps give music its character. For example, a
familiar piece of music sounds very different if performed with all its notes
the same length. The piece of music sounds strange because it lacks the variety
of the short and long notes that make up its normal rhythm.
Another important element of rhythm
is accent. Most composers build their music on a pattern of
regularly occurring accents. Certain types of music have a fixed pattern of
accent. For example, a waltz follows a strong-weak-weak pattern, ONE
two three ONE two three. A march has a strong-weak pattern, ONE
two ONE two.
Some composers create different
rhythms by accenting beats that are normally unaccented. This techniqL-5 known
as syncopation, has been widely used in jazz.
Melody.
The composer combines pitches and rhythms to create a melody, or tune. The
American composer Aaron Copland said, "Melody is what the piece is
about." When we hear a piece of music, we most often remember its melody.
Some short pieces of music have only
one melody. Longer pieces may consist of different melodies to give the music
contrast and variety. A melody repeated throughout a composition is called a theme. Composer:
often use a part of a melody or theme to develop musical ideas. Such a part is
called a motive. The first four notes of the German composer
Ludwig van Beethoven s fifth symphony form a motive. By repeating and varying
these four notes, Beethoven developed a theme for the first part of this work.
Harmony.
Most Western music is based on the idea of sounding notes together. The
sounding together of two or more notes is called harmony.
Harmony involves the use of various
intervals in a scale. Intervals are named according to the number of degrees
they cover in a major scale. For example, an interval from A to C covers three
degrees - A, B, and C - and is called
a third. An interval spanning five degrees, such as A to E or
C to G, is a fifth. Fourths, fifths, and eighths are
called perfect intervals. Seconds, thirds, sixths, and
sevenths can be either major intervals or minor
intervals. Perfect intervals and major intervals can be augmented (raised
a semitone). Perfect intervals and minor intervals can be diminished (lowered
a semitone).
Composers use intervals to
create chords, which are combinations of notes sounded at the
same time. The composer may build a chord on any note. The most common type of
chord is the triad, which consists of three notes, each a third
apart. For example, a chord that consists of the notes C, E, and G is a major
triad. A chord with the notes C, E flat, and G is a minor triad.
The tonic triad, or tonic
chord, is the most important chord in a piece of music. It is built on
the tonic note of the scale. The second most important chord is the dominant
chord, and the third is the subdominant chord. The
dominant chord is built on the fifth note of the scale, and the subdominant
chord on the fourth. In the C major scale, the tonic chord is formed by C, E,
and G; the dominant chord by G, B, and D; and the subdominant chord by F, A,
and C. Any note in the diatonic scale can be harmonized with one of the
chords—the tonic, dominant, or subdominant. Many simple songs are harmonized
by using only these chords.
Most Western composers use a harmonic
system based on the tonic and dominant notes of the scale. The composer fixes
the tonic and thus a specific key (tonal centre) firmly in the
listener's mind. The composer may then modulate (shift) from
one key to another by adding sharps or flats to the music. Generally, these
sharps or flats prepare the dominant or tonic of the new key. Modulation adds
variety and may emphasize a contrasting section of a work. In most cases, the
composer eventually returns to the original key.
Another important element of harmony
is the cadence. This is a succession of chords that end a
musical work or one of its sections. Most pieces of classical music end with
a perfect cadence,which consists of a dominant chord followed by a
tonic chord. A plagal cadence consists of a subdominant chord
followed by a tonic chord. The "Amen" ending of a hymn is an example
of a plagal cadence.
Harmony has been a part of Western
music for more than 1,000 years. However, Western composers' ideas about
harmony have changed considerably over the centuries, particularly their ideas
about consonance and dissonance. Harmony that
sounds smooth and pleasant is consonant. Harmony that sounds rough and tense is
dissonant. Generally, the notes that belong to the major and minor triads are
considered consonant intervals, and all other intervals are dissonant.
Composers use harmony chiefly for
music that has a melody and accompaniment. Some musical compositions consist
of two or more melodies played at the same time. This form of music is called counterpoint.
Tone colour, also called timbre, is
the quality of a musical sound. Tone colours produced by different musical
instruments vary widely. For example, a flute has a smooth, bright sound, while
an oboe has a more nasal quality. The differences in tone colour are due to
difference in the way the instruments are made and in the means of producing
sounds on them. Composers take account of tone colour in orchestration (writing
or arranging music for a group of instruments). They combine tone colours
just as an artist combines paints to create a picture.
Musical notation
Through the years, composers
developed a system for writing down music so it could be performed by musicians.
This system is called notation. Notation indicates (1) the
pitch of notes; (2) the time values, or duration of the notes; and (3)
expression—that is, the composer's ideas about the manner in which the music
should be performed.
Indicating pitch.
The simplest way to express pitch is to use the letters A to G. This kind of
notation, however, cannot show rhythm. Since the 1200"s, composers have
used staff notation to express both pitch and rhythm. In this
system, signs called notes represent musical sounds. The
notes appear on a staff, which consists of five horizontal
lines and the four intervening spaces. Each line and space represents a certain
pitch. Short ledger lines indicate pitches above or below the
staff.
A clef sign at the
left end of the staff determines the names of each line and space. Most music
is written in either treble clef or bass clef. High
notes, such as those for the violin and flute, appear in treble clef. This clef
is often called the G def. It fixes the G above middle
C (the C nearest the middle of the piano keyboard) on the second line
from the bottom of the staff. Lower notes appear in bass def, also
called F def. The bass clef fixes the F below middle C on the
second line from the top of the staff.
Composers use both treble clef and
bass clef for piano and harp music. The C def is used in music
for the viola, and sometimes in music for the bassoon, cello, and trombone.
This clef fixes middle C in a position that minimizes the number of ledger
lines.
A staff signature, or key
signature, appears at the right of the clef sign. It consists of sharp
signs (#) or flat signs (b) that indicate which notes should always be played
sharp or flat. Each staff signature can indicate either of two keys - one
major key and one minor key. For example, two sharps can mean the key of either
D major or B minor.
The composer may show a change from
the staff signature by placing an accidental in front of a
note. An accidental is the sign for a sharp, a flat, or a natural.
Any note not marked by a sharp or a flat is a natural. The natural sign
cancels a sharp or a flat.
Indicating time values. Staff notation enables composers to indicate how
long each note should be held. The semibreve has the longest
time value of any note. The second longest note is the minim, then
the crotchet, quaver, semiquaver, demisemiquaver, hemidemisemi -
quaver, and so on. Each time value is divided by two to find the next
smallest note value.
The shape of a note shows its time
value. Semibreves and minims have an open oval shape. Notes with shorter values
have solid oval shapes. All notes except semi-breves have stems. To
indicate notes with shorter values than the crotchet, composers attach flags, or tails,
to the stems. A quaver has one flag; a semiquaver has two, a demisemiquaver
has three, and so on. In a series of short notes, the composer connects the
note stems with beams instead of attaching a flag to each
stem.
A dot on the right of a note
increases its duration by half. For example, a dotted minim equals a minim plus
a crotchet. Duration may also be increased by a tie, a curved
line that connects consecutive notes of the same pitch. The total duration of
tied notes equals that of the notes combined.
Periods of silence are an important
part of a piece of music. The composer uses marks called rests to
indicate silence in music. The various shapes of rests indicate their time
values.
A composer groups the notes and rests
in a piece of music into units of time called bars, or measures. The
composer uses bars to separate measures on the staff. The way
in which beats are grouped in bars is called the metre.
Metre is indicated by the time
signature, a fraction that appears at the beginning of a piece of
music. The numerator of the fraction tells the number of beats in a bar. The
denominator tells what kind of note - minim, crotchet, quaver - receives one
beat. Music with a J metre, for example, has two beats to a bar and a crotchet
as the beat unit. One bar of J may have a minim, two crotchets, four quavers,
or some other combination totalling two beats. A J metre, sometimes written
as C, has four crotchets to a measure. Other commonly used
metres include \ and J.
Many modern composers create
irregular rhythms by changing the time signature several times during a piece
of music. These composers also may use unusual time signatures, such as J or
jj.
Another important element of time in
music is tempo. The tempo tells how slowly or quickly the beat
unit should be played. Composers sometimes show tempo by a metronome
mark, which indicates the number of beats per minute. The musician can
then follow the tempo by using ametronome, a timekeeping machine
that can be adjusted to tick off each beat. Composers also may use a number of
Italian words to indicate tempo. For example, the word adagio means slowly, and
the word presto means fast. These
Italian words are used because Italian musicians had the greatest influence in
Europe during the 1600's and 1700s, when composers first used words to
indicate tempo.
Indicating expression. To affect a listener's feelings, music must be
expressive. Composers use various words and symbols to indicate the kind of
expression they want in a piece of music.
Some directions indicate articulation
- that is, how a series of notes should be connected. A curved line over or
under notes means that the notes should be connected smoothly. This style of
playing is called legato. A dot over or under notes indicates
that they should be played as short notes with silence between them. Musicians
call this type of articulation staccato.
Composers use certain Italian words
or their abbreviations to indicate dynamics (loudness or softness). For
example, the word pianissimo (or pp) means very
soft, and the word fortissimo (or ff) means very
loud. Other directions, also in Italian, concern the emotional quality
of the music. For example, dolce
means sweetly, allegro means lively, and cantable mean songlike.
Music around the world
Western music is the music of people
of European ancestry. It is the major form of music in Europe, North America,
South America, and Australia. People in some Asian countries - for example,
China, Korea, and Japan— also enjoy Western music. Western music can be divided
into three main types: (1) classical music, (2) popular music, and (3) folk music.
Classical music, also called art music, is composed
according to certain rules and performed by musicians from written music. It
includes symphonies and music for opera and ballet. Classical composers have
written different styles of music during different periods of history. For
example, most classical music composed in the late 1700s stresses simplicity
and elegance. But much classical music of the late 180ffs is highly imaginative
and emotional. Music written by great classical composers of the past provides
as much enjoyment today as when it was written. See Classical music.
Popular music includes
many kinds of music, such as country music, jazz, rock music, and music from musical comedies and films.
Popular music, or entertainment music, is
generally much simpler than classical music. However, some pieces written as
popular music hundreds of years ago are performed as classical music today. In
addition, many great classical composers wrote some tunes in the style of the
popular music of their time. Thus, the line between popular and classical music
is flexible, not hard and fast.
Country music is derived from the folk music of
rural whites of the Southern United States and other American traditional
music. Country music is played from memory or improvised (spontaneously
varied) from an existing song. See Country music.
Jazz
first became popular about 1900 among blacks of the Southern United States. It
combines the complex rhythms of African music and the harmony of Western music.
Jazz musicians have experimented with many kinds of instruments and styles.
Most jazz features much improvisation.
Rock music
is a mixture of blues, country music, so. and American and
British entertainment music. It is easier to understand than classical music
or jazz. Styles or rock music frequently change, but such music always has a
strong beat and a simple melody and rhythm.
Folk music consists
of the traditional songs of a pepie. Most folk songs begin in rural
communities. One person makes up a song, and other people hear it and learn to
sing it. Some folk songs have been passed or - this way for hundreds of years.
Many composers of classical music have used folk music in their works. See
Folk music.
Asian music
sounds different from Western music because the scales, instruments, and
composing techniques used are different. For example, a scale in Western
music has 12 notes to an octave. But the Arab scale has 17 notes to an octave,
and the Indian scale has 22 notes. Such scales are called microtonal because
they are made up of microtones - that is, intervals smaller
than a semitone. The chief types of Asian music are those of (1) China, (2)
Japan, (3) India, (4) the Arab countries, and (5) Indonesia.
Chinese music began
more than 2,000 years ago. Orchestras with hundreds of musicians performed at
early Chinese religious ceremonies and court festivities. Today, all Chinese
plays are set to music. Peking opera.
The principal Chinese musical
instruments are the jin and the pipa, two
plucked stringed instruments. Chinese’ musicians also play bowed stringed
instruments, flutes, and percussion instruments, especially bells, drums, and
gongs. The basic scale of Chinese music has five notes, most commonly F, G, A,
C, and D. Traditional Chinese music does not have harmony.
Japanese music was influenced by the court music of China.
Japanese court music, called gagaku,dates from the A.D. 700's.
Japanese orchestras consist of shakuhachi (bamboo flutes),
gongs, drums, and such plucked stringed instruments as the samisen and
the koto.
Music is an essential part of
Japanese theatre. The no play, a form of Japanese drama
developed in the 1300's, features solo and choral singing with accompaniment by
a small orchestra. A large orchestra provides background music for the kabuki, a
dance-drama.
Japanese music has no harmony but
makes use of microtones and free rhythm. The basic scales are the natural minor
scale and a major scale with the fourth note raised a half step for example, the
C major scale with an F sharp instead of an F.
Indian music is
one of the few kinds of non-Western music that have become internationally
popular. It first flourished in Hindu temples and the courts of the maharajahs (great
kings) of India. A soloist sings or plucks a stringed instrument, such as
the vina or the sitar. The soloist may be
accompanied by a drummer and a musician playing a tambura, a
lutelike instrument.
The notes of the Indian scale are
arranged in various patterns called ragas. Each raga has a
special meaning and may be associated with a particular mood, emotion, season,
or time of day. The performer chooses an appropriate raga, plays it, and then
improvises on it. See also India, Dance and music of.
Arab music is the music of the Arab nations of the
Middle East and northern Africa. The main Arab instruments include flutes;
drums; and two plucked stringed instruments, the oud and the qanun. Most
Arab songs have instrumental accompaniment. However, musical instruments may
not be used in Muslim worship. The chief Muslim religious music consists of
calls to prayer sung by criers called muezzins and the
chanting of passages from the Quran, the sacred book of the Muslims.
Indonesian music is noted for orchestras called gamelans. These
orchestras consist of drums, gongs, and xylophones and are used to accompany
puppet plays. Gamelan music has a kind of harmony because the instruments play
different melodies at the same time.
African music
is the music of black peoples who live south of the Sahara. These peoples use
music in almost every aspect of their lives, especially religious ceremonies,
festivals, and social rituals. Many Africans believe that music serves as a
link with the spirit world.
Drums are the most important
instruments in African music. Some drums are made of animal skins and may be
played with the fingers. Others consist of hollow logs that the performer beats
with sticks. African musicians also play flutes, xylophones, and stringed
instruments. One kind of instrument, called the sansa or mbira, consists
of a number of metal strips attached to a piece of wood. The musician plays the
instrument by plucking the strips with the fingers or thumbs.
Most African music features complex
rhythms. The musicians create these rhythms by combining different patterns of
beats played on drums and iron bells or produced by handclapping. Some African
songs have harmony. In many songs, a leader sings a phrase and then the chorus
repeats the phrase or sings a refrain. Elements of African music appear in
jazz, spirituals, gospel music, and the popular music of Brazil and the Caribbean.
American Indian music is the traditional music of the Indians of North
and South America. Much of it developed before Europeans arrived in the
Americas.
American Indians almost always
perform music as part of an activity. For example, music and dancing play an
important part in Indian religious ceremonies and such tribal rituals as rain
dances and hunting dances. Indian religious leaders called medicine
men sing songs as they treat the sick. The Indians also use songs in
various social situations, such as courtship and trading. Many Indians compose
their own' songs. In the past, they said that they learned these songs from
spirits that appeared to them in dreams.
Most American Indian music consists
of singing accompanied by drums or rattles. Much of this vocal music uses a five-note
scale—A, C, D, F, G. Some Indian groups also perform flute music.
In various parts of Latin America,
the music of the Indians mixed with the folk music of their Spanish conquerors.
This mixture produced distinctive types of popular music and dance.
Related articles:
See the Arts section of the articles on various countries,
such as China (The arts). See also the following articles:
Biographies: For biographies of
people in the field of music, see the lists 0" Related
articles at the end of Classical music; Hymn; Jazz; Musical comedy;
Opera; Piano; Popular music; and Violin.
Outline
The Importance of music
In ceremonies
In work
Musical instruments
Stringed instruments
Wind instruments C Percussion
instruments
The elements of music
Notes
Rhythm C Melody
Musical notation
Indicating pitch
Indicating time values
Indicating expression
Music around the world
Western music
Asian
music
African music
American-Indian music
Questions
How do composers indicate silence in
music?
What is Western music? Why does Asian
music sound different from Western music?
What is a staff signature? A
time signature?
How do minor scales and major scales
differ?
What is counterpoint?
What is the difference between tone and tone
colour?
How does a musician play a brass
instrument?
What is a theme? A motive?
What is the major difference between
music and such arts as painting and poetry?
Music hall is a form of entertainment that was at the height
of its popularity in the late 1800's and early 1900's in Britain. Music hall
entertained mainly the poorer working people, and most of the performers
came from this class. The humour was broad and robust. Music halls had up to 20turns (performances)
on their bills (programmes). Performers often appeared in
three or four halls in one evening and toured all over the country. The most
popular performers were comedians, acrobats, jugglers, dancers, singers, and
conjurers. Top performers included the singer Marie Lloyd and the male
impersonator Vesta Tilley.
Music hall developed from the singing
rooms of taverns. In 1854, Charles Morton opened a special room at the
Canterbury Arms on the south side of the River Thames. The room had a stage and
was known as the Surrey Music Hall. Other public houses opened similar halls.
Between World Wars I and II, music hall lost its popularity, party because of
competition from the cinema and radio. After World War II, it virtually ceased
as popular entertainment.
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